Amputation and residual limb
Residual limb
The part of the limb that remains after amputation. In Polish the everyday word for it sounds blunt, but it is the normal term you will hear from every clinician. The socket sits on it, so its shape, skin condition and scar decide whether the prosthesis is bearable all day.
- load-bearing surface for the socket
- reference for casting and measurement
- area checked daily after taking the prosthesis off
Technical view
The limb segment remaining after amputation. Its volume changes over time, most strongly in the first months after surgery and also within the day, which is a leading cause of socket fit loss. It is the load-bearing interface, with areas that tolerate pressure and areas that do not.
Related entries Socket Prosthetic sock and adding plies Contracture
Level of amputation
The height at which the limb was removed. For the leg, the common levels are below knee and above knee. This distinction drives everything that follows: whether the prosthesis needs a knee, how much energy walking costs, how long learning takes.
- determines the set of prosthetic components
- affects the energy cost of walking
- shapes the course of rehabilitation
Technical view
Limb amputation levels are set out in international terminology, including the full range of partial foot and partial hand amputations. In the lower limb these include below-knee and above-knee levels, knee and hip disarticulation, and amputations within the foot and at ankle height. The level determines how many joints the prosthesis has to replace.
Related entries Prosthesis Mechanical knee Contracture
Residual limb oedema and bandaging
After surgery the residual limb swells and that is normal. The swelling still has to be brought down, because until it is, the limb will not take the shape a socket can be built on. Compression does that: a bandage applied to a set pattern, or a compression sock. The pattern depends on the level of amputation and differs for the thigh, the shank and the upper limb.
- reducing limb circumference before prosthetic fitting
- shaping the limb for the future socket
- easing pain
In practice
The technique can be learned and done on your own, and good instructional guides are available online. It is still worth going through it once with a physiotherapist, so they can check the tension and pressure distribution on your own limb. If numbness, tingling or pain appear after wrapping, take the bandage off and reapply it more loosely.
Technical view
Post surgical oedema of the residual limb is one of the principal early complications after amputation, alongside pain, contracture and wound healing problems. Management includes compression, limb elevation and active exercise. Compression must be graduated, higher distally and decreasing proximally, because the reverse distribution acts as a tourniquet and impedes drainage. Rehabilitation guidelines address soft dressings, elastic compression and rigid dressings separately.
Related entries Residual limb Shrinker Contracture
Shrinker
A thick, tapered sock pulled onto the residual limb to bring down swelling and shape it before a socket is made. It is worn for long stretches, often at night too, as the team advises. It is not the same sock as the one later added under the socket.
Not to be confused with: with the prosthetic sock added in plies under the socket of a finished prosthesis to compensate volume.
- reducing post surgical oedema
- giving the limb a socket friendly shape
- preparing the skin for contact with materials
Technical view
A compression garment of conical cross section with graduated pressure, intended to reduce oedema and shape the residual limb in the pre prosthetic period. Also used for desensitisation and to counter the adductor tissue roll after amputation at thigh level. Sized to limb circumference and length, it needs replacing as volume decreases.
Related entries Residual limb oedema and bandaging Prosthetic sock and adding plies Residual limb
Surgical scar
The scar on the residual limb has to move over the tissue underneath, because if it adheres to bone, every donning of the socket will pull on it. That is why scar mobilisation starts once the wound has healed: gently moving the skin with your fingers in all directions.
- keeping the skin mobile over the limb
- reducing the risk of abrasion under the socket
- improving pressure tolerance
In practice
A physiotherapist demonstrates the techniques. Before the sutures come out, do not work the incision line itself without the team's approval.
Technical view
Scar condition is one of the criteria for judging a residual limb ready for fitting, alongside wound healing, vascular supply, absence of pain and sufficient load bearing surface. Scar mobilisation means moving tissues relative to deeper layers and is introduced after the incision line has healed. A scar adherent to underlying tissue limits pressure tolerance and may force changes in socket design.
Related entries Residual limb Abrasions and skin problems in the socket Residual limb hypersensitivity
Residual limb hypersensitivity
After surgery even touching the limb can be unbearable. It passes gradually, through desensitisation: touching and massaging with progressively less soft materials, from a cotton ball up to rough fabric. This matters practically, because the socket will touch the whole surface all day long.
- preparing the limb for constant socket contact
- increasing tolerance of touch and pressure
- part of the daily care routine
Technical view
An increased reaction to touch and pressure over the residual limb in the early period after amputation. Management includes desensitisation, that is graded exposure to stimuli of increasing intensity, together with massage and tapping, which can also be done through the dressing. These techniques are described as part of preparation for fitting, also affecting touch tolerance and adjustment to a changed body image.
Related entries Surgical scar Residual limb pain Residual limb
Abrasions and skin problems in the socket
The skin of the residual limb works inside a closed, warm and humid space, so it reacts fast. Redness that fades within fifteen minutes of taking the prosthesis off is normal. Redness that stays longer, a blister or a broken patch of skin is a sign that something in the fit is off.
- a clue to load distribution inside the socket
- a criterion for daily limb checks
- the basis for deciding on socket correction
In practice
Check the limb every day after taking the prosthesis off, ideally with a mirror for the side you cannot see. Show an open wound to a doctor rather than a prosthetist, and leave the prosthesis off until that is decided.
Technical view
Skin problems on the residual limb arise from a combination of pressure, shear, moisture and friction inside the socket environment. Their distribution has diagnostic value, since it indicates zones of excessive load and can be related to pressure tolerant and pressure intolerant areas. Volume change of the limb and loss of socket fit are among the main causes of increasing friction.
Related entries Socket Residual limb Prosthetic sock and adding plies
Lower limb prosthesis
Socket
The part of the prosthesis that encloses the residual limb. Made individually, because every limb is different. This is where the comfort of the whole prosthesis is decided. A good knee in a badly fitting socket will not help.
Not to be confused with: with a silicone liner. In prosthetic workshops the two words are sometimes used interchangeably, and they are two different things.
- distributing force between limb and prosthesis
- holding the prosthesis on the limb
- protecting skin from point pressure
Technical view
The prosthetic component enclosing the residual limb, transferring load to the tissues and connecting the limb to the rest of the structure. Made individually from a plaster cast, a scan or digital measurement. The first socket after surgery is often an interim one, intended for the period of volume change. Designs differ in load distribution, from selective weight bearing to total surface bearing.
Related entries Liner Prosthetic sock and adding plies Vacuum suspension
Liner
A stretchy silicone or gel cover, closed at the bottom, rolled onto the residual limb. The socket goes on over it. It does two things at once: it protects the skin from friction and it takes part in holding the prosthesis on the limb.
Not to be confused with: with a sealing sleeve, which is open at both ends and pulled over the socket from the outside.
- reducing friction and point pressure
- part of the suspension system
- evening out small volume mismatches
Technical view
An interface between the residual limb and the socket, closed at the distal end, donned by rolling it onto the limb. Made of silicone, gel, thermoplastic elastomer or copolymer. Beyond cushioning it forms part of the suspension system, in versions with a distal pin, with a sealing membrane, or working together with a sealing sleeve. Materials differ in friction, thermal conductivity and behaviour under load, and selection rests largely on clinical experience.
Related entries Socket Pin suspension Vacuum suspension
Prosthetic sock and adding plies
A thin sock worn over the residual limb or the liner to fill the gap when limb volume drops and the prosthesis starts to feel loose. Layers can be added or removed during the day. This is routine adjustment, not a sign that something is wrong.
- compensating for limb volume change
- reducing movement of the limb inside the socket
- an additional layer absorbing perspiration
In practice
When you consistently need more plies than before, or the prosthesis still moves despite them, book an appointment for the socket to be assessed.
Technical view
A knitted item of defined thickness, worn between the limb and the socket or over the liner, compensating for daily and long-term volume change. Volume change is a leading cause of socket fit loss, particularly in the first year. Adding plies is a temporary measure, and a persistent need for several plies indicates the socket should be reviewed.
Related entries Socket Liner Residual limb
Pin suspension
A pin at the end of the liner locks into a mechanism at the bottom of the socket. You step in, hear the clicks, and it holds. A release button lets it go.
Not to be confused with: with vacuum suspension, where there is no pin and no lock.
- simple and predictable attachment
- donning without assistance
Technical view
Mechanical suspension based on a distal pin on the liner engaging a ratchet lock in the socket. It gives a definite, repeatable connection with audible confirmation, can be donned seated, and tolerates volume fluctuation well. Its drawback is point loading at the distal end of the limb during swing phase.
Related entries Liner Vacuum suspension Socket
Vacuum suspension
The prosthesis is held by suction: air is drawn out of the socket. No pin, no lock. It can be passive, with air pushed out as you walk, or active, with a pump maintaining the vacuum.
- even load distribution without a pulling point
- less movement of the limb inside the socket
- more stable limb volume through the day
Technical view
Suspension based on a pressure difference between the socket interior and the surroundings. The passive version uses a one-way valve and air expelled under load, the active version a mechanical or electronic pump. Sealing is provided by a sleeve rolled over the socket and thigh, or by a liner with a sealing ring or membrane. The valve needs regular cleaning.
Related entries Liner Pin suspension Socket
Mechanical knee
A prosthetic knee that works without electronics. It does not read what you are doing, so safety rests on your gait technique and on settings your prosthetist adjusts from time to time. Most people with an above-knee amputation in Poland walk on these.
- flexion and extension when walking, sitting and standing up
- stabilising the limb under load
Technical view
A knee unit whose behaviour is set by its construction, without sensors or real-time adjustment. It is classified by number of axes into single-axis and multi-axis, including polycentric designs, and by movement control into friction, pneumatic and hydraulic. Multi-axis designs gain stance stability through joint geometry rather than friction. Pneumatic and hydraulic units control flexion and extension speed through a cylinder with adjustable valves, while stance flexion resistance, which matters on stairs and when sitting down, is in practice provided by hydraulic designs.
A note on terminology
The term mechanical knee is normally applied to anything without electronic control. Some workshops narrow it to spring and friction designs, setting those against pneumatic and hydraulic knees. It is worth asking which division is meant.
Related entries Microprocessor knee Alignment Level of amputation
Microprocessor knee
A knee with sensors and a processor that checks what is happening dozens of times a second and adjusts resistance in real time. Stairs, ramps, uneven ground, a stumble. It does not walk for you and does not remove the need to learn, but it forgives more mistakes than a mechanical knee.
- greater stability on uneven ground and stairs
- reduced risk of falling after a stumble
- less effort when walking at varying speed
Technical view
A knee unit with sensors, typically inertial plus force and angle, controlling hydraulic or magnetorheological resistance in stance and swing. It recognises gait cycle phases and situations that deviate from the pattern, including loss of balance, by increasing flexion resistance. It requires charging and periodic servicing, and its available functions depend on the configuration set by the prosthetist.
Related entries Mechanical knee Alignment Hydraulic foot
Carbon fibre foot
A prosthetic foot built from curved carbon blades. It flexes under load and returns part of that energy at push-off, so walking feels lighter. Stiffness is matched to body weight and activity.
Not to be confused with: with a blade style running foot, which has no heel and is not suitable for everyday walking.
- less effort over longer walking distances
- adaptation to uneven ground
- standard provision for active users
Technical view
An energy storing and returning foot built from carbon laminate, selected by body mass and expected activity level. Energy return occurs at push-off and lowers the energy cost of walking compared with feet having a rigid ankle segment. Designs differ in blade length, keel position and range of motion in the frontal plane.
Related entries Hydraulic foot Alignment Pyramid adapter
Hydraulic foot
A foot with a hydraulic ankle that adjusts its angle to the ground. On slopes and stairs it sits flat instead of forcing you to compensate with the hip and back.
- adaptation to slopes and uneven ground
- less compensation at the pelvis and spine
- steadier ground contact at slow walking speed
Technical view
A foot with a hydraulic ankle joint allowing controlled dorsiflexion and plantarflexion, with damping adjusted independently in each direction. It improves ground conformity and load distribution in stance. It also exists combined with energy storage and in microprocessor-controlled versions.
Related entries Carbon fibre foot Microprocessor knee Alignment
Pyramid adapter
An unassuming truncated-pyramid connector joining parts of the prosthesis. Four screws around it let the prosthetist tilt one part against another by fractions of a degree. It is what makes alignment possible at all.
- joining components of a modular prosthesis
- adjusting angle and offset during alignment
- replacing single parts without rebuilding the whole
Technical view
A standardised modular connector with a four-sided cone and a receiver with four set screws, allowing angular adjustment and linear shift between components. It underpins the modular system, in which socket, structural parts, joint and foot come from independent ranges. Adjustment through these screws is the basic tool for correcting alignment.
Related entries Alignment Prosthesis Carbon fibre foot
Alignment
How the socket, the shafts and the foot are set against each other and against your body. Millimetres and fractions of a degree decide whether you walk straight or your limb starts hurting after an hour. Alignment is not set once and is revisited whenever something changes.
- gait symmetry and efficiency
- pressure distribution inside the socket
- knee stability in stance
In practice
Come back to it after a change of socket, component, body weight or shoes with a different heel height, or when a new abrasion appears in the same place.
Technical view
The spatial relationship of prosthetic components in the sagittal, frontal and transverse planes, shaping the path of the ground reaction force relative to joint axes. Bench, static and dynamic alignment are distinguished, the last corrected from gait observation. Faulty alignment shows as characteristic gait deviations and local overload of residual limb tissue.
Related entries Pyramid adapter Socket Mechanical knee
Interim and definitive prosthesis
The first prosthesis is an interim one, because limb volume changes over the early months and no socket will fit for long. The definitive prosthesis comes once volume settles. This is a stage, not a lower grade of equipment.
- earlier standing and walking
- shaping the limb under load
- avoiding an expensive socket for a limb that is still changing
Technical view
The interim, also called preparatory, prosthesis supports early mobilisation and limb shaping during the period of greatest volume change. The definitive prosthesis is made once volume has stabilised. In the Polish reimbursement schedule both appear as separate items, with their own funding limits and replacement intervals.
Related entries Socket Residual limb Prescription for a medical device
Stance phase and swing phase
The two parts of every step. Stance is when the leg is on the ground carrying body weight. Swing is when the leg is in the air moving forward. Your prosthetist will use these two words constantly, because a prosthesis behaves completely differently in each and each is adjusted separately.
- the framework used to set up a prosthesis
- shared language with the prosthetist and physiotherapist
- a reference point when describing gait problems
In practice
When you report a problem, say at which point of the step it appears. Giving way under load is stance, catching your toes on the floor is swing. That halves the time it takes to diagnose.
Technical view
The basic division of the gait cycle. Stance runs from foot contact to toe off, swing from toe off to the next contact. In a lower limb prosthesis the two phases have separate control systems: flexion resistance in stance governs safety of the loaded limb, resistance in swing governs the pace and smoothness of shank advance. Adjusting one phase does not change behaviour in the other.
Related entries Mechanical knee Microprocessor knee Alignment
Stance stability of the knee
The mechanism that stops the prosthetic knee from folding under you while you stand on that leg. Simpler knees rely on friction or on joint geometry, knees with a cylinder rely on fluid resistance. Newer designs do more than block flexion, they let the knee bend slowly and under control, which is what makes step over step stair descent possible.
Not to be confused with: with swing phase control, which governs the limb in the air, not the loaded limb.
- holding extension while the limb is loaded
- controlled yielding on slopes and stairs
- reduced fall risk after a stumble
Technical view
Stance phase control, that is the system generating flexion resistance at the knee joint while the limb is loaded. Achieved by a load activated friction brake, by a polycentric design placing the instantaneous centre of rotation posterior to the load line, or by hydraulic damping. Hydraulic solutions permit controlled yielding flexion under load, which polycentric knees without stance damping generally do not offer.
Related entries Stance phase and swing phase Mechanical knee Microprocessor knee
Swing phase control
The system that decides how fast the prosthetic shank swings forward while the leg is in the air. Without it a prosthesis has one speed, so when you pick up the pace the knee either lags behind or slams into extension. With it you can change walking speed and the leg follows.
Not to be confused with: with stance stability, which acts when the limb is loaded.
- matching the prosthesis to variable walking speed
- damping terminal impact before heel contact
- symmetry of step length
Technical view
The system generating flexion and extension resistance at the knee joint during swing. Implemented mechanically with a spring and friction, pneumatically or hydraulically. A pneumatic unit compresses air during flexion and returns energy during extension, a hydraulic unit provides resistance dependent on fluid flow rate through orifices. Its role is to limit heel rise at the start of swing and damp terminal impact at its end.
Related entries Stance phase and swing phase Stance stability of the knee Mechanical knee
Microprocessor foot
A foot with sensors and a microprocessor that changes the ankle setting by itself depending on what you are walking on. Uphill it lifts the forefoot, downhill it drops it, and when you sit down it can set the foot flat. It needs charging and servicing, like any electronic part of a prosthesis.
- adapting ankle angle to the slope of the ground
- easier roll over when walking uphill
- greater ground clearance during swing
Technical view
A foot with microprocessor control of ankle position and resistance. Sensors detect direction and velocity of movement and the unit regulates dorsiflexion and plantarflexion in real time. Biomechanical studies have shown a greater ankle range of motion and a dorsiflexed position during swing compared with feet on a rigid attachment, and on slope ascent also a reduced knee extension moment. Evidence favouring powered push off feet over energy storing feet remains limited.
A note on terminology
The term is used both for feet that only adjust ankle position and for feet with powered push off. These are two different designs with different bodies of evidence, so it is worth asking which one is meant.
Related entries Carbon fibre foot Hydraulic foot Microprocessor knee
Pylon
The tube connecting the socket to the knee, or the knee to the foot, that is the shank of the prosthesis. It looks like nothing much, yet it carries your entire weight. It is shortened and lengthened when the height of the prosthesis is set.
- transmitting loads between modules
- setting the height of the prosthesis
- mounting point for rotation and shock adapters
Technical view
The load bearing element of a modular assembly, joining the remaining modules and transmitting axial loads. Usually a tube of aluminium alloy, steel or carbon fibre, of standardised diameter, clamped to adapters. Pylon length determines prosthesis height and is one of the parameters set during alignment.
Related entries Pyramid adapter Alignment Prosthesis
Sealing sleeve
An elastic sleeve open at both ends, rolled from the socket up onto the thigh to close off the inside of the socket and hold the vacuum. It wears out faster than the rest of the prosthesis, because it works with every bend of the knee.
Not to be confused with: with a liner, which is closed at the distal end and rolled directly onto the residual limb.
- sealing the socket space
- maintaining vacuum suspension
- limiting movement of the residual limb inside the socket
Technical view
A suspension component in the form of an elastomer sleeve covering the proximal socket brim and the limb segment above it, creating the seal of a vacuum system. It works together with an expulsion valve or a pump. Material and thickness affect sealing, resistance to flexion and durability, and damage to the sleeve shows up as loss of suspension.
Related entries Vacuum suspension Liner Socket
Heel height
A prosthesis is set up for one specific heel height. With a foot that has no adjustment, changing to markedly higher or lower shoes tilts the whole structure and changes how the leg behaves. There are, however, feet with heel height adjustment, and microprocessor feet set the ankle angle by themselves. If you want to wear shoes of varying height, tell your prosthetist, because it is a criterion for choosing the foot rather than an obstacle you have to live with.
- maintaining the designed load line
- knee stability in stance
- a criterion for foot selection with varied footwear
In practice
State the range of heel heights you need for everyday and for special occasions when components are being chosen, not after you collect the prosthesis. That is a question to ask before the foot is selected.
Technical view
An alignment parameter defining the height difference between the heel support point and the forefoot, for which the angles and load line of the prosthesis were set. Deviation from the design value shifts the ground reaction force resultant relative to the knee joint axis, changing stance stability. Designs differ fundamentally here: feet on a rigid attachment require realignment at the workshop, feet with an adjustment mechanism allow the ankle angle to be changed by the user within a set range, and feet with microprocessor ankle control adapt the position automatically.
Related entries Microprocessor foot Alignment Carbon fibre foot
Cosmetic cover
A cover giving the prosthesis the shape of a leg, usually foam or silicone, sometimes a light shell. It is not compulsory. Some people want the prosthesis to look like a leg, others leave the structure exposed. It is entirely your decision and it can be changed at any time.
- giving the prosthesis a limb contour
- protecting modules from dirt and impact
- matching circumferences to the other leg
Technical view
An outer layer giving the prosthesis a contour close to that of a limb, made of shaped foam, silicone elements or composite shells. It carries no load. It may restrict access to adjustments and add mass, and with some designs affect resistance to joint movement.
Related entries Pylon Prosthesis Pyramid adapter
Shower prosthesis
A simple prosthesis meant for wet conditions, used in the shower, at the pool and around water. It exists because an everyday prosthesis with electronics or steel parts does not tolerate water and soap. It has a simplified build and is not meant for long walks.
- safe movement in the bathroom and at the pool
- protecting the everyday prosthesis from moisture
- keeping independence while washing
In practice
Ask about it when the prescription for the definitive prosthesis is written, not a year later. Publicly funded provision has separate criteria and intervals worth knowing in advance.
Technical view
A prosthesis of water resistant construction intended for use in wet conditions, usually without electronic components, built from non corroding parts and with a sole surface limiting slip. In the Polish list of medical devices issued on prescription it is covered separately from the primary prosthesis, with its own award criteria.
Related entries Prescription for a medical device Funding limit and disability fund grant Prosthesis
Pain
Phantom limb pain
Pain felt in a part of the limb that is no longer there. It is real, it can be severe, and it is not a psychiatric symptom. Treatments exist and it is worth telling a doctor rather than waiting for it to pass.
Not to be confused with: with phantom sensation, which is not painful.
- it does not rule out prosthesis use, and for some people eases once fitting begins
- it worsens with fatigue, stress and weather change
- it warrants medical assessment, as some causes are reversible
Technical view
Pain localised to the missing limb segment, with peripheral and central mechanisms linked to sensorimotor cortical reorganisation and altered neuronal excitability. Distinct from residual limb pain, which arises in tissue that is present. Management includes pharmacotherapy, neuromodulation techniques and approaches based on visual-motor feedback.
Related entries Phantom limb sensation Residual limb
Phantom limb sensation
The sense that the missing part of the limb is still there. You may feel its position, tingling, warmth or itching. It is not the same as phantom pain and is not in itself a cause for concern.
Not to be confused with: with phantom limb pain.
Technical view
A non-painful perception of the missing limb segment, covering its position, movement and sensory qualities. It is common and distinct from phantom limb pain, although both may occur together. It needs no treatment but matters in therapies using visual feedback.
Related entries Phantom limb pain
Residual limb pain
Pain felt in the part of the leg that remains, not in the missing part. That is what separates it from phantom limb pain, though the two can occur together and are often confused. It has concrete causes, from an overtight socket through bone spurs to a neuroma, so it is worth describing precisely rather than filing under one heading.
Not to be confused with: with phantom limb pain, which concerns the part of the limb that is no longer there.
- distinguishing it from phantom pain when talking to a doctor
- a clue to a mechanical or neural cause
- grounds for reviewing prosthetic fit
Technical view
Pain felt in the remaining part of an amputated limb. A meta-analysis covering 6716 patients after lower extremity amputation found a pooled prevalence of 59 percent. Causes divide into somatic, covering wound and prosthesis related problems, bone changes, vascular dysfunction and infection, and neuropathic, including neuromas. The literature notes that residual limb pain is often not properly recognised, which accounts for the varying prevalence reported.
Related entries Phantom limb pain Neuroma Abrasions and skin problems in the socket
Neuroma
A thickening at the end of a cut nerve, formed during healing. It does not have to hurt and is sometimes found by chance. When it does hurt, the pain is usually pinpoint and sharp, described as an electric shock, and appears on pressing that one spot or on donning the socket.
- an identifiable cause of pinpoint pain
- part of the differential diagnosis of residual limb pain
- a reference point when planning treatment
In practice
If you can point a finger at one spot where pressure reproduces the pain, say so plainly. That is the piece of information diagnosis starts from.
Technical view
Overgrowth of nerve tissue at the site of nerve transection, resulting from disordered fibre regeneration. A meta-analysis after lower extremity amputation found symptomatic neuromas in 15 percent of patients, against 59 percent for residual limb pain overall. Asymptomatic neuromas are a common incidental finding on imaging. Diagnosis uses ultrasound together with reproduction of symptoms on compression.
Related entries Residual limb pain Phantom limb pain Residual limb
Mirror therapy
A method used for phantom limb pain. A mirror is placed so that the reflection of the remaining leg takes the place of the missing one, and movements are performed while watching the reflection. It is cheap, non invasive and can be done at home. Research findings are mixed, so treat it as one option rather than a sure solution.
- a non invasive method that can be done at home
- part of a wider pain therapy programme
- no interaction with drug treatment
Technical view
A method based on visual feedback, in which the mirror image of the intact limb replaces the image of the amputated one. The evidence is divided. A meta-analysis of randomised trials found a significant reduction in pain intensity, with high heterogeneity of results. Other systematic reviews point to low quality of the included studies, no advantage over sham intervention and uncertainty about long term effect. The method is also used as the third stage of graded motor imagery.
A note on terminology
Reported results differ depending on what mirror therapy was compared against. That is the main reason for the divergence in the literature and the reason no firm recommendation can be made today.
Related entries Phantom limb pain Phantom limb sensation Residual limb pain
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